Design Guidelines

Researched and compiled by Heather J. Johnson

"Ecotourism is nature-based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable."

Australian Commission on National Ecotourism Strategy

History

In October 1991, the National Park Service (NPS) held a symposium in Vail, Colorado as part of the organizational renewal activities associated with the 75th Anniversary of the National Park Service.Five groups were organized to study "the state of the parks."They found that "the National Park Service is being stressed by a variety of factors... beyond the scope of standard park management, and that sustainability is a way of addressing these stresses on a broader scale." (1)

Consequently, in November 1991, "the sustainable design initiative was officially launched with a workshop at Maho Bay Campground, St. John.This partnership forum included participants from the American Institute of Architects, American Society of Landscape Architects, the Ecotourism Society, National Parks and Conservation Association, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Greenpeace, local representatives from the Virgin Islands, private architectural and engineering firms, and ecotourism resort operators." (2)

They determined the long-term objective of sustainable design to be the minimization of resource degradation and consumption on a global scale, and that the U.S. National Park Service should become a model for this global education.It therefore follows that, "the primary goal of sustainable building design must be to 'lead through example' to heighten environmental awareness." (3)

As a result of the workshop, the National Park Service and Maho Bay Camps, Inc. have joined in partnership to produce the first prototype for sustainable development following these guidelines.

Prototype Guiding Principles

The Maho Bay / NPS prototype is intended to provide a basis for achieving sustainable development in campground design.The goal is to create guidelines for building dwellings that minimally impact the environment while helping to develop conservation-oriented values in the guest.The prototype is a lightweight, site-adaptive structure designed to be placed in fragile environments where traditional structures would be overly destructive.Five initial prototype eco-tents have been built and tested over the past two years at Maho Bay.The following guidelines are derived from the research and experience gained at the Maho eco-tents.The guidelines are not invariable, they should be adapted as our knowledge of the world continues to evolve.

Sustainability

Sustainability can be a rather elusive term to define.The World Commission on Environment and Development describes sustainability as, "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."An old African adage supports this definition with its simple prose, "We did not receive this land from our forefathers, we have borrowed it from our children."The guidelines for the eco-tent prototype have been written with this phrase in mind.At the core of sustainable development there must lie the realization that humans have a partnership with Earth.Since each parcel of earth is unique, design solutions must evolve from all indigenous realities.

Notes about Education and Interpretation in Units

Sustainable development must integrate education throughout the entire process so that people become more aware and responsive to the interdependence of global resources in their daily lives.This is a critical component in meeting the National Park Service guidelines.The dwelling units must not only work and be comfortable to stay in, but they also must teach the relationship between guest consumption and available regional resources; that is sustainability. (4)

"Interpretation is the communication path that connects visitors with the resources.Good interpretation is a bridge leading people into new and fascinating worlds.It brings new understanding, new insights, new enthusiasms, and new interests." (5)

General Notes

This document and the prototype guidelines were developed to provide prospective architects with design specifications for our future projects.This paper addresses three main topics: The Structure and Design of Prototype Eco-tent Dwellings, Eco-tent Conservation, and Additional Site Uses.Each section covers specific structural elements that should be included in sustainable design, as well as examples from the Maho Bay eco-tents and suggestions for education and interpretation in units.

Prototype Eco-tent Dwelling - Structure & Design

"Sustainable design balances human needs (rather than human wants) with the carrying capacity of the natural and cultural environments.It minimizes environmental impacts, importation of goods and energy, as well as generation of waste.The ideal situation would be that if development was necessary, it would be constructed from natural sustainable materials collected on site, generate its own energy from renewable sources such as solar or wind, and manage its own waste." (6)

Eco-tent designs must be:

Affordable - building costs should be under $30,000 per unit, including walkways and individual utility systems.

Vernacular and site specific - incorporating the natural landscape as well as some local character.

Location

Place the site-adaptive eco-tents on the more pristine and fragile settings of the site.Build solid support buildings on the worst, or previously damaged sections.

Avoid visual pollution of the landscape.

Background:At Maho, sensitive siting combined with ecological restoration has actually repaired some of the local environment. If it is necessary to build a swimming pool, it should be located on sloping terrain to accommodate the slope of the bottom of the pool, perimeter footings can be hand dug if necessary. Tennis courts, etc. should be built on flat terrain, etc.

Size

The units should be as small as possible to fit within existing trees and topography.

Background:Two optimum unit dimensions have worked well at Maho.

Choice A = 16' x 16' footprint with a 2' x 8' extension for the open porch (the toilet and shower are outside the unit connected by the walkway)

Choice B = 16' x 16' footprint with a porch area outside the unit connected by the walkway (in this version the toilet and shower are inside the units)

Interior Design

The units should sleep a family of 4 with privacy and comfort, and up to 6 people if necessary.

Background:A 16 x 16' square floor plan can be divided into four 8' x 8' sections: a bedroom. a kitchen area, a living room with a queen size sleep sofa, and either an open porch or a toilet shower area. The bedroom should be a bit larger to accommodate two twin beds with some space in between, a sleeping loft can hold an additional two children. *Extending the porch 2' will allow for a larger bedroom (see attached eco-tent renderings).

Materials

"The complete life-cycle energy, environmental, and waste implications of each building material must be examined.This cradle-to-grave analysis is the tracing of a material or product, and its by-products, from its initial source availability and extraction through refinement, fabrication, treatment and additives, transportation, use, and eventual reuse or disposal.This tracing includes the tabulation of energy consumed and the environmental impacts of each action and material." (7)

Units should use recycled and local building materials where possible (see Harmony Supplier list).

Materials should be light and portable.

Structural members should have minimum standard dimensions.

Materials should be used so that there is very little waste, for example if fabric is 64" and only 54" is needed, the additional material used for another purpose.

Background:Maho has been successful with a light wood framed structure, supported on 4" x 4" posts and covered with heat reflective fabric for the roof and nylon-reinforced, laminated fabric for the walls. Other ideas might be considered for different climates or situations, for example metal framing instead of wood, straw bale, rammed earth, or hemp for walls, etc.

Walkways

The units should be connected by elevated walkways to minimize site disturbance.The walkways should allow easy access to difficult terrain at the campground.

The walkways should be built first so that workmen and building materials can traverse the walks during construction.

Electrical wiring and water pipes should be fastened to the underside of the decking.

Background:Using an elevated walkway system has allowed the Maho Bay resorts a minimum of site erosion over their 20 year history, even on a steep sloping site.

Construction

The site is to be left as undisturbed as possible.

Prefabrication should take preference to site building.

The dwellings should be easy to build by low skilled labor, and sit on hand-dug footings or anchored to boulders.

Heavy construction equipment should be avoided.

The construction process is an integral part of the building plans.Where conflict exists, the decision should always be for the environment.

Background:Maho Bay uses only specialized heavy equipment which can work from roads to avoid site disturbance (e.g. concrete pump, back hoe, 4-in-1 bucket on our bulldozer, etc.)

Orientation

Units should be elevated to accommodate space for a composting toilet and cistern underneath the platform.

Consideration should also be given to wind directions and sun angles:

Units must support passive solar heating/cooling and energy production.

Composting toilets should be located down wind.

Background:The tents at Maho Bay are built on sloping terrain to provide room under the platform for the toilet and cistern. On flat land the platform should be elevated to a height over the compost bin.

Roof

Roof should be designed to catch rain water with drainage to a cistern.

Roof should be heat reflective with overhangs to protect dwellings from intense mid-day sun.

Background:Reflective coating and overhangs help to prevent heat from penetrating the dwelling, this is integral for passive cooling techniques.Water collected from the roof is filtered to be potable.

Storage Space

The tents should have plenty of pegs for hanging guest's clothes, as well as shelves/storage for luggage.It is important to use every inch of space.

Background: Storage space within the units has been an issue in the Maho eco-tents.

Climate

Units should be designed to protect the guests from changes in climate (wind, rain, temperature, etc.)

Background: The Maho Bay tents use screening, roll down shades, pulleys, bungee cords, etc. to allow for opening and closing the dwelling as necessary (Estate Concordia is a very hot and windy site).

Natural Disasters

The units must deal with local natural trauma (hurricane, rock slide, fire, earthquake, etc.)

Background:In the Virgin Islands the major problems are termites and hurricanes.

We use termite proof building materials and furnishings.

The materials and furnishings are weather resistant.We use outdoor furniture, waterproof couch and bed covering, stainless steel and marine fittings, Monel staples, etc.

Fabric is connected to the structure by Monel staples so that the fabric blows loose in a hurricane and there remains little wind resistance on the structure.

Screens are removable so they can be taken down before the hurricane.

Tarp and ropes can be stored under units to cover the furnishings.

For California - consider solutions for fires, earthquakes, and rock slides (e.g. controlled burning, etc.)

Atmosphere

The units should provide a sense of privacy while maximizing views and interesting natural "assets."The structures however, should be subordinate to the ecosystem.

Background: Adequate space and vegetation between the units, and careful and creative siting in the field can provide a sense of privacy and interest within the campground. Positive sensory experiences are also important for the guest: sight, sound, touch, smell.

Landscape

The campground should heighten the sense of intimacy that the guest has with the surrounding natural environment.

Background:Choose sites in interesting areas with a good view. The dwellings should be light, open, and oriented toward views.

Planting of aromatic and colorful native trees and plants will attract wildlife like hummingbirds.Planting is also used for privacy screening.This flora is supported by the compost from the toilet and gray water from the shower.

Restoration

"Sustainable site design requires holistic, ecologically based strategies to create projects that do not alter or impair but instead help repair and restore existing site systems." (8)

Development should address ecological restoration of the site.

Background:At Maho Bay it is necessary to control feral animals and exotic imported plants and trees.Initiation of a native plant landscaping program has helped to attract indigenous wildlife.In the Virgin Islands the birds, bats, lizards, and tree frogs in turn help control the biting insects.

Eco-tent Conservation

ENERGY

"Responsible energy use is fundamental to sustainable development and a sustainable future. Energy management must balance the justifiable demand with the appropriate supply. The process couples energy awareness, conservation, and efficiency with the use of primary renewable energy resources." (9)

"To sustain its own wise use of energy, the sustainable development must demonstrate benefits rather than sacrifices to its users (which includes visitors and operators)." (10)

Renewable Electric Power

The units should be energy self-sufficient using renewable electric power and maximizing passive solar design.

Background: The eco-tents at Maho Bay successfully use photovoltaics and wind for electric power. Hydro and big-gas for energy might be appropriate in some cases.

Education: This is an interesting educational opportunity for the customer.When the batteries are full the guest is actually wasting by not using energy.It is important to encourage consumption when power is available and conservation when it is not.

• A gauge is necessary to monitor available energy in the battery, and indicate when batteries are full.
• A voltmeter allows guests to adjust solar panels to the optimum angle to the sun.
• A barometer helps with weather forecasting.
• Timers on appliances to avoid over use.

Ventilation & Cooling

Passive and natural techniques should be used.

Background: At Maho, the tents use solar design such as roof overhangs, heat reflective glass and fabric, and planting for shade, in conjunction with wind scoop ventilation, Venturi principle, and evaporative cooling. Other alternatives might be thermal chimneys, earth sheltering, etc.(11)

Education: The best strategy for keeping a dwelling cool is to keep it from getting hot in the first place.That means shading to block the hot mid-day sun but not the cooling breezes.Cooling techniques can be more elusive than other aspects of the eco-tents, so it is important to post signs about:

• Evaporative cooling principles.
• Ventilation by wind scoops and Venturi principle.
• Heat reflection by reflective fabric and glass.
• Shading - use of planting and trees, awnings and roof overhangs to protect from the sun.

Heating

Guests should be able to secure units to hold heat, as well as to open up units to maximize ventilation for cooling.

Background:There is no need for heating on St. John, although the eco-tents can be closed to trap in heat on cool nights. In colder climates the units should maximize solar design: mass for insulation, techniques such as circulated air heated by hot water storage inside the unit, or a back-up propane heater.

Education:Heating should be customer interactive, for example a simple way to keep people warm is to layer more clothing.

Water Supply & Collection

Units should have cistern holding capacity which stores rain water collected from the roof.

Background: Since there is not always enough rain to accommodate guests.The cistern provides storage for rain water as well as water that is trucked in.

Rain is collected off the roof and stored in a cistern (cisterns can be interconnected with over flows for alternate filling).The guest hand pumps water from the cistern into a black container over the shower which provides water pressure and functions as a hot water heater. T his container feeds both the shower and sink and has gauges showing water level and temperature.If the water is too hot, the guest can pump more cold water from the cistern into the black solar heater.The gauge at the sink and the shower shows water use versus supply in the cistern, and total water use during the guest's stay (use low flow fixtures).

Education:"User education and awareness is a key to a successful water conservation program. Positive reinforcement should be provided to visitors by informing them of their actual water savings as well as their responsibility in achieving the goal of water conservation." (12)

Fixtures

The units should use energy efficient fixtures compatible with solar design.

Background: The Maho Bay camps use Sun Frost refrigerators, D.C. fans, microwave ovens, solar efficient lighting, compact fluorescent bulbs, solar pumps, a two burner stove run by propane, etc.. Natural day lighting should be used where ever possible.

Hawaii - beach front lighting should be designed not to disorient turtle hatchlings.

Lighting should be low intensity and directed downward or reflected with cut off angles, or set back from the beach so not directly visible. (13)

Education: Use meters to show electric consumption by appliances. Timers on fans, appliances, and lights help to make guests aware of their energy use.

WASTE

"The only way to avoid environmental harm from waste is to prevent its generation. Pollution prevention means changing the way activities are conducted and eliminating the source of the problem. It does not mean doing without, but doing differently." (14)

Composting Toilets

Human waste should be treated with a composting toilet.

Background: Several models of composting toilets have been experimented with at Maho Bay, a toilet with minimum water flush seems to work the best.

Education:The toilet must be designed with gauges showing heat and moisture content so the guest can monitor the health of bacteria in the compost.If the temperature drops in the bin, the guest adds organic material (i.e. sawdust or food scraps) to the mass and stirs with a lever.If the compost pile gets too dry, the guest pumps water from the bottom over the mass.A sign across from the toilet can provide interpretive information that explains to the guest how a composting toilet works.

Compost from toilets should be used for local planting.

Food Waste

Appropriate food waste should be disposed of in a composting bin, and the balance used for animal feed.

Education: The campground should be designed to promote food waste composting: provide an area for collecting scraps and install a program for sensible use of compost.

Waste Water

"Water conservation includes using water of lower quality such as reclaimed wastewater effluent, gray water, or runoff from ground surfaces for...irrigation of vegetative landscape or food crops." (15)

Where applicable separate gray water (showers, sinks, etc.) from black water (toilet waste).

Gray water should be filtered through, a one-foot-wide stone trough filled with soil and then used for drip irrigation.

Background:At Maho Bay, gray water is used to support vegetative growth, and rejuvenate indigenous plant and animal life in the area (natural drainage patterns should be taken into consideration). Nutrient rich gray water can be used to grow small gardens near or around units and also for producing food.

Back-up Systems

Units should have backup support systems in case guests run out of power or water.

Background:At Maho Bay, there is propane back-up for cooking, candles for light, and public watering stations when necessary. The units are also equipped with a 5 gallon water container and an ice chest (ice is available at the commissary).

Additional Site Uses

• Restaurant and eating pavilion
• Performing arts pavilion
• Dormitory housing for students
• Teaching (classroom) facilities
• Separate pavilion for conference/ workshops/ etc.
• Swimming pool
• Tennis courts
• Other sports activities
• Maintenance facilities (workshop/ storage)
• Food storage (freezer, refrigerator)
• Commissary
• Office space

Food Production Area

Located adjacent to restaurant possibly using a fish pond, planting shed, orchard, etc., to use waste water and compost from resort. The food will then be featured in the restaurant.

Workshop

Repairs, woodworking, crafts, prototype development, and product testing

Nature Center

Trail development, bird watching, plant identification, wildlife sanctuary

Research Development & Testing Center

(outside funding needed)

• development of sustainable electric power sources
• development of natural waste treatment systems
• development of small scale manufacturing processes to convert local trash into building materials
• development of a solar kiln backed by propane to support local manufacturing of trash into building products

"I am not a philosopher, but if I have learned anything about sustainable design over the past twenty years, it is that it is ego-less. It is about what works and listening to both nature and your customers."

Stanley Selengut

Footnotes

Note:The National Park Service publication, "Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design", referenced frequently in this document, may be found in its entirety by clicking here

1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 6.
2. Ibid.
3. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 59.
4. The St. John, Virgin Islands, Concordia Sustainability Demonstration Prototype, Synopsis of the July 1995 Planning Workshop, p. 4.
5. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 9.
6. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 55.
7. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 66.
8. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept 1993, p. 41.
9. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept 1993, p. 71.
10. Ibid.
11. Dianna Lopez Barnett with William D. Browning, A Primer on Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, 1995, p. 64.
12. U S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 79.
13. Paul W. Raymond, Sea Turtle Hatchling Disorientation and Artificial Beachfront Lighting, The Center for Environmental Education Sea Turtle Rescue Fund, 1994, a. 57 & 61.
14. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept. 1993, p. 87.
15. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Sept 1993, p. 79.

Bibliography

• Australian Commonwealth Department of Tourism, National Ecotourism Strategy, 1994. (Source for the cover page quote.)
• Barnett, Dianna Lopez with William D. Browning, A Primer on Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, 1995.
• Heede, Richard, Homemade Money: How to save energy and dollars in your home, Rocky Mountain Institute, Brick House Publishing, Amherst, NH, 1995.
• Raymond, Paul W., Sea Turtle Hatchling Disorientation and Artificial Beachfront Lighting, The Center for Environmental Education Sea Turtle Rescue Fund, Washington, D.C., 1984
• The St. John, Virgin Islands, Concordia Sustainability Demonstration Prototype, Synopsis of the July, 1995 Planning Workshop.
• U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver Service Center, 1993.
• William McDonough Architects, The Hanover Principles: Design for Sustainability, New York, 1992.